Over 80 years have passed since the Imperial Japanese Navy executed a surprise attack on U.S. air and naval resources stationed at Pearl Harbor.

Many people today think that this attack came out of nowhere.

In reality, Japan had been expanding its reach since the early 1900s, seeking the natural resources of its neighbors in the Pacific.

The United States aimed to restrain this expansion through diplomatic measures first, followed by sanctions, and then outright embargoes. Nevertheless, Japan’s military aggressiveness grew, leading to a steady decline in diplomatic relations between the two nations.

Even though U.S. officials were bracing for a potential war with Japan, they did not foresee a direct assault on Pearl Harbor. Japan, however, believed that war was unavoidable and aimed to destroy the Pacific Fleet in one swift strike.

The Sequence of Events Leading to the Attack

1905

Japan achieves victory in the Russo-Japanese War, establishing itself as a world power while acquiring territories in southern Manchuria.

1910

Japan formalizes its control over Korea through annexation.

1914

Aligning with Russia, Britain, and France during World War I, Japan captures German territories in the Pacific.

1917

The United States joins World War I, signing an agreement with Japan to enhance relations.

1925

The British military journalist Hector Bywater publishes “The Great Pacific War,” a speculative novel predicting a 1931 conflict between Japan and the U.S., featuring scenarios of Japanese surprise attacks on U.S. territories including the Philippines and Guam.

Isoroku Yamamoto, who would later orchestrate the Pearl Harbor attack, was a naval attaché in Washington, D.C., during the book’s review by the New York Times.

Military radicals in Japan rise to power after the invasion of Manchuria and establishing a puppet government.

1932

The U.S. Navy conducts a military exercise called Grand Joint Army and Navy Exercise 4, involved a simulated surprise attack with aircraft carriers launching planes early in the morning, which catches defenders off-guard.

1934

The USS Arizona appears in the 1934 film “Here Comes the Navy,” with scenes filmed aboard the ship featuring sailors as extras. Gloria Stuart, who co-starred in this movie, would later gain fame as Old Rose in James Cameron’s 1997 film “Titanic.”

1936

Attempts by military extremists to overthrow the Japanese government fail, as the nation grapples with economic turmoil following the global stock market crash. Military leaders advocate for an expansionist agenda as a national right.

Japan and Germany forge an alliance against the Soviet Union by signing the Anti-Comintern Pact on November 25.

1937

Japan launches an invasion of China and the subsequent December campaign leads to horrific acts of violence against civilians, known as the Rape of Nanking.

1938

The U.S. Navy conducts Fleet Problem XIX, a war game designed to assess Pearl Harbor’s defenses against aerial attacks. An aircraft carrier situated 100 miles north of Oahu executes a simulated attack, successfully targeting Ford Island and Hickam and Wheeler airfields.

1939

Japan overtakes Hainan Island off the southern coast of China in February. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who now commands the Imperial Navy, takes charge as World War II begins with Germany invading Poland in September. In December, the U.S. halts aviation fuel exports to Japan.

1940

The U.S. will transfer its Pacific Fleet from San Diego to Pearl Harbor in May, although this will not be officially confirmed until February 1941.

In September, Japan takes control of the French colony Indochina. In response, the U.S. imposes trade sanctions and an embargo against Japan.

On September 27, Japan, Germany, and Italy sign the Tripartite Pact, forming an alliance against Britain and France.

In November, British aircraft from carriers bomb Italian naval vessels at Taranto harbor in the Mediterranean during a nighttime raid, sinking one battleship and damaging two others. The Japanese secretly observe this attack.

1941

In January, Admiral Yamamoto consults with his officers regarding the possibility of a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor.

On January 27, Joseph Grew, the U.S. ambassador to Japan, sends a cable to Washington with news of whispered plans for a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. However, Washington dismisses these claims, thinking Japan will target the Philippines first if war breaks out.

February 1: Admiral Husband Kimmel is appointed as the commander-in-chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. He reviews the ambassador’s warning along with an intelligence analysis that downplays the threat.

March 31: Two U.S. air-defense officers stationed at Pearl Harbor submit a report indicating that a Japanese air raid is likely to occur at dawn, launched from carriers within 300 nautical miles. They predict the assault will happen before any formal declaration of war.

July 26: Japan occupies southern Indochina (currently known as Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia).

In retaliation, on July 28, the U.S. imposes an oil embargo and freezes Japanese assets, with the British and Dutch East Indies following suit.

November 26: Unbeknownst to the U.S., Japan’s carrier strike force departs Hitokappu Bay (now known as Kasatka Bay in the Kuril Islands) toward Pearl Harbor, joined by Japanese submarines along the way.

December 6: President Franklin Roosevelt sends a peace plea to Japan, but receives no reply.

December 7: The attack on Pearl Harbor commences. Japanese aircraft carriers located 220 miles north of Oahu launch their aircraft at 6:05 a.m. in the first of two waves of assault.

At 7:02 a.m., U.S. personnel at the Opana radar site in northern Oahu detect a large formation of incoming aircraft. They mistakenly presume it to be a flight of U.S. B-17 Flying Fortresses arriving from California and ignore the sighting.

Later investigations reveal insufficient information was communicated in the radar report. The number of detected aircraft wasn’t conveyed to the commanding officer, who also did not inform the operators of how many B-17s to expect.

Unbeknownst to the operators, a Honolulu radio station, KGMB, broadcast music through the night, which the B-17s utilized as a navigation beacon.

The Japanese pilots were also tuned into the same radio station, following its signals. One of the songs played was a Japanese tune sung by a teenager titled “Menkoi Kouma” (“Come on a Pony”).

2,403

Number of individuals killed in the attack.

2,335

Deaths among U.S. military personnel.

68

Deaths among U.S. civilians.

1,178

Number of U.S. individuals wounded.

3

U.S. Navy ships that were destroyed.

18

U.S. Navy ships that were damaged.

169

U.S. aircraft that were destroyed.

159

U.S. aircraft that were damaged.

1,177

Men killed aboard the USS Arizona. While numerous ships reported fatalities, the deaths on the Arizona comprised nearly half of the total casualties, with estimates suggesting over 900 still entombed within the ship.

16 days

The battleship West Virginia endured multiple torpedo and bomb hits, ultimately sinking to the harbor floor. After extinguishing the fires, sailors detected sounds emerging from deep within the forward hull. Some men remained alive, trapped inside, with no means of rescue available.

The West Virginia was raised on May 17, 1942, 161 days after the attack. Inside, workers discovered the remains of three men in a sealed storeroom:

• Ronald Endicott, 18
• Clifford Olds, 20
• Louis Costin, 21

A calendar was found with days marked off from December 7 to December 23.

Japan’s miscalculations

Admiral Chester Nimitz of the U.S. noted three significant mistakes made by Japan during the attack:

1. Launching the attack on a Sunday morning, when many U.S. personnel were on leave.
2. Concentrating on destroying battleships while neglecting the repair docks.
3. Not eliminating military fuel storage tanks.

Repairs of U.S. ships

The assault resulted in the destruction of three battleships—USS Arizona, USS Utah, and USS Oklahoma—along with damage to six battleships and twelve other vessels. These damaged ships underwent repairs in the following months and later received combat battle stars for their engagements against the Japanese forces. Here is a breakdown of battleships that were repaired along with the time taken and battle stars earned:

From Pearl Harbor to Tokyo Bay

The USS West Virginia was salvaged and restored after the attack. Along with the USS Detroit, which was unharmed in Pearl Harbor, both ships played a significant role in the confrontation against Japan. They also participated in the large assembly of U.S. naval vessels in Tokyo Bay for Japan’s formal surrender on:

September 2, 1945

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NOTE The attack times are approximations; different sources report varying times

SOURCE “Pearl Harbor, Infamy to Greatness,” Craig Nelson; “At Dawn We Slept,” Gordon Prange; “Sunday in Hell: Pearl Harbor Minute by Minute,” Bill McWilliams; “Japan’s War,” Edwin Hoyt; “Ten Years in Japan,” Joseph Grew; “Pearl Harbor Ghosts: The Legacy of December 7, 1941,” Thurston Clarke; “Pearl Harbor, 1941, the Day of Infamy,” Carl Smith; “Pearl Harbor, The Day of Infamy – An Illustrated History,” Dan Van Der Vat; “Pearl Harbor, America’s Call to Arms,” Life Magazine; “Pearl Harbor,” H.P. Willmott; National Park Service; U.S. Naval Institute; U.S. Naval History and Heritage Command; U.S. Naval War College; pearlharbor.org; nationalww2museum.org; pearlharbor75thanniversary.com; pearlharboroahu.com; history.com